Fair sharing is just caring: Links between justice sensitivity and distributive behavior in middle childhood.

Justice sensitivity (JS), the tendency to perceive and adversely respond to injustice, was related to prosocial behavior in different age groups and to distributive preferences in adults. To test influences of JS on sharing and distributive preferences, middle childhood as an important phase for moral development may be particularly interesting. We asked 1320 5- to 12-year-old children (M = 8.05 years, SD = 1.02; 51.2 % girls, 1.3 % transgender and gender-nonconforming) to read five vignettes that made salient the different principles of distributive justice (equality, merit, and need) and to distribute imaginary sweets between themselves and one described child (sharing) or between two described children (distributing). Children also rated their JS, and parents rated children's theory of mind (ToM) abilities and empathy. More concerns for justice for the self (victim JS) predicted distributions following the merit principle and a preference for need over equality and merit when forced to choose among the three. Caring for justice for others (altruistic JS) predicted more sharing, equal distributions, less distributions according to the merit principle, and a preference for equal distributions over merit and need when forced to choose among the three. These associations prevailed when ToM and empathy were included as control variables. The findings underline the importance of justice-related personality traits, such as JS, for moral development in middle childhood.

Um capítulo esquecido na história da psicologia? sexualidades desviantes, psicopatologia e normalidade / A forgotten chapter in the history of psychology? deviant sexualities, psychopathology, and normality / ¿Un capítulo olvidado en la historia de la psicología? sexualidades desviadas, psicopatología y normalidad

Este artigo tem como objetivo produzir uma análise histórica sobre as intersecções entre Psicologia e sexualidade desviantes da norma no Brasil, de fins do século XIX a meados da década de 1980. Esta temporalidade foi escolhida por abarcar o surgimento das pesquisas científicas sobre sexualidade e desvios sexuais, a consolidação dos estudos psicológicos sobre a temática e o processo mais recente de despatologização da homossexualidade. Em termos teóricos e metodológicos, foram adotados os pressupostos da História Social da Psicologia e da historiografia das homossexualidades no Brasil. Desse modo, buscou-se compreender como as ideias, concepções e práticas psicológicas foram mudando ao longo do tempo, em conexão com as transformações socioculturais e políticas que ocorreram durante o século XX. Para isto, foram utilizadas fontes primárias e secundárias de pesquisa com vistas à produção de interpretações sobre as conexões entre as ideias, os atores e os eventos narrados. Argumenta-se, ao longo do artigo, que as ideias e práticas psicológicas estão intrinsecamente conectadas aos contextos socioculturais e políticos de seu tempo, sendo os movimentos dinâmicos e os conflitos presentes nesses contextos fatores determinantes para a sua constituição.(AU)

This article aims to produce a historical analysis of the intersections between Psychology and sexualities that deviate from the norm in Brazil, from the late 19th century to the mid-1980s. This period was chosen because it encompasses the emergence of scientific research on sexuality and sexual deviations, the consolidation of psychological studies on the subject and the most recent process of de-pathologization of homosexuality. Theoretically and methodologically, the assumptions of the Social History of Psychology and the historiography of homosexualities in Brazil were adopted. Therefore, we sought to understand how psychological ideas, conceptions and practices have changed over time, in connection with the sociocultural and political transformations that occurred throughout the 20th century. For this, primary and secondary sources of research were used to produce interpretations about the connections between the ideas, the actors and the narrated events. It is argued, throughout the article, that the psychological ideas and practices are intrinsically connected to the sociocultural and political contexts of their time, being the dynamic movements and conflicts present in these contexts determining factors for their constitution.(AU)

Este artículo tiene como objetivo realizar un análisis histórico de las intersecciones entre la Psicología y las sexualidades desviadas de la norma en Brasil desde finales del siglo XIX hasta mediados de la década de 1980. Esta temporalidad fue elegida por abarcar el surgimiento de las investigaciones científicas sobre sexualidad y desvíos sexuales, la consolidación de los estudios psicológicos sobre el tema y el más reciente proceso de despatologización de la homosexualidad. En el marco teórico y metodológico, se adoptaron los presupuestos de la Historia Social de la Psicología y de la historiografía de las homosexualidades en Brasil. De esta manera, se pretende comprender cómo las ideas, concepciones y prácticas psicológicas han cambiado a lo largo del tiempo, en conexión con las transformaciones socioculturales y políticas ocurridas durante el siglo XX. Para ello, se utilizaron las fuentes de investigación primarias y secundarias con miras a generar interpretaciones sobre las conexiones entre las ideas, los actores y los eventos narrados. Se argumenta, a lo largo de este artículo, que las ideas y las prácticas psicológicas están intrínsecamente conectadas a los contextos socioculturales y políticos de su tiempo, y los movimientos dinámicos y los conflictos presentes en estos contextos fueron los factores determinantes para su constitución.(AU)

Resolução de conflitos familiares por adolescentes e defesa do domínio pessoal / Adolescents' family conflict resolution and defense of personal domain / Resolución de conflictos familiares por adolescentes y defensa del dominio personal

Compreender as estratégias de resolução de conflitos utilizadas por adolescentes na relação com seus pais é fundamental para entender como ocorre seu desenvolvimento saudável. Este artigo investigou a resolução de conflitos de adolescentes em situações de confronto entre o seu domínio pessoal e o controle parental. 36 adolescentes com idades entre 15 e 17 anos, divididos igualmente conforme o sexo, responderam a uma entrevista semiestruturada, que continha quatro situações de conflito hipotéticas. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de conteúdo semântica e a testes não paramétricos. Os resultados foram categorizados em sete estratégias: Assunção de culpa, Submissão, Mentira, Hostilidade, Diálogo/Explicação, Negociação e Outra. A forma predominante de resolução utilizada foi o Diálogo/Explicação, considerada como uma forma recorrente de defender o domínio pessoal. Foram encontradas diferenças em relação ao sexo dos participantes e à situação hipotética. Por fim, os resultados são discutidos em termos de grau de autonomia e tipo de defesa do domínio pessoal.(AU)

Understanding the conflict resolution strategies used by adolescents in their relationship with their parents is fundamental to understanding how their healthy development occurs. This article investigated the resolution of conflicts by adolescents in confrontation situations between their personal domain and parental control. A total of 36 adolescents, aged 15 to 17 years, divided equally according to sex, answered a semi-structured interview that contained four hypothetical conflict situations. Data were subjected to semantic content analysis and non-parametric tests. The results were categorized into seven strategies: Assumption of Guilt, Submission, Lie, Hostility, Dialogue/Explanation, Negotiation, and Other. The predominant form of resolution used was Dialogue/Explanation, considered a recurrent form of defense of the personal domain. Differences were found depending on the participants' gender and the hypothetical situation. Finally, the results are discussed regarding the degree of autonomy and type of defense of the personal domain.(AU)

Enterarse de las estrategias de resolución de conflictos que los adolescentes utilizan en la relación con sus padres es fundamental para comprender cómo ocurre el desarrollo saludable de los adolescentes. A partir de una entrevista semiestructurada, presentamos cuatro situaciones hipotéticas de conflicto que fueron analizadas y respondidas por 36 adolescentes de entre 15 y 17 años, divididos según el género. Los datos se sometieron a un análisis de contenido semántico y a pruebas no paramétricas. Los resultados se categorizaron en siete estrategias de resolución de conflictos: Asunción de culpa, Sumisión, Mentira, Hostilidad, Diálogo/Explicación, Negociación y Otros. La forma de resolución más utilizada fue Diálogo/Explicación, y esta categoría fue una forma de defensa del dominio personal. Asimismo, se encontraron diferencias en función del género de los participantes y conforme la situación hipotética. Los resultados se discuten en términos de grado de autonomía y tipo de defensa del dominio personal.(AU)

Formação em psicologia escolar: implicações para a prática em equipe multiprofissional / The school psychology formation: implications for the practice in multidisciplinary team / Formación en psicología escolar: implicaciones para la práctica en equipo multiprofesional

O objetivo dessa pesquisa foi levantar o perfil sociodemográfico e formativo de psicólogos escolares, e discutir seu impacto nas práticas junto ao coletivo escolar e no trabalho em equipe. No município onde ocorreu a pesquisa, o psicólogo escolar é membro da equipe de especialistas em Educação. Participaram da pesquisa 62 psicólogos que atuam no Ensino Fundamental I, II, e na Educação de Jovens e Adultos. Os participantes responderam um questionário on-line com perguntas abertas e fechadas sobre dados sociodemográficos, de formação e atuação profissional. Realizou-se uma análise qualitativa a partir dos objetivos e itens do instrumento, quais sejam: caracterização do perfil sociodemográfico dos psicólogos escolares, formação acadêmica, atuação em psicologia escolar, atuação em outros campos/áreas da psicologia, e atuação em equipe de especialistas. A média de idade dos profissionais é de 47,46 anos, e apenas um é do sexo masculino. Possuem tempo de atuação de um a 36 anos, e a maioria não possui estágio supervisionado e pós-graduações no campo da psicologia escolar. Parte das equipes que trabalham nas escolas está incompleta, e há uma variabilidade nos dias e horários de reuniões. Reafirma-se que a formação de psicólogos escolares tem repercussões na atuação junto à equipe multidisciplinar, e a importância de intervenções pautadas na perspectiva crítica e psicossocial em Psicologia Escolar. Ademais, conhecer o perfil sociodemográfico e formativo destes profissionais possibilita obter um quadro atualizado sobre o grupo pesquisado e criar estratégias de intervenção que potencializem a atuação desses profissionais junto à equipe de especialistas e demais setores da escola.(AU)

The aim of this research is to identify the sociodemographic and training profile of school psychologists, and discuss their impact on practices within the school collective and the teamwork. In the city where the research took place, the school psychologist is a member of the council's expert team in Education. The research participants included 62 psychologists that work in elementary and intermediate school, and EJA. They answered an open and multiple choice online survey on sociodemographic, formation, and working data. A qualitative analysis was conducted considering its objectives and items, namely: sociodemographic profile, academic education, professional background on school psychology, other psychology fields/ areas, and participation on expert teams. The professionals are 47 and 46 years old, average, only one of them being male. They work in this position from one up to 36 years, and most of them do not have training experience and postgraduate studies in school psychology. Part of the teams working at schools are incomplete, and there is a variability concerning days and hours to team meetings. It is notable that the training profile of psychologists has repercussions in the performance with the multidisciplinary team, and in the importance of interventions based on critical and psychosocial perspectives in School Psychology. Moreover, knowing the sociodemographic and training profile of these professionals allowed us to have an updated chart about the researched group, as well as to create intervention strategies that enhance these professionals' performance within the expert team and other sectors of the school.(AU)

Esta investigación tuvo por objetivo levantar el perfil sociodemográfico y formativo de psicólogos escolares para discutir su impacto en las prácticas junto al colectivo escolar y al trabajo en equipo. En el municipio donde ocurrió la investigación, este profesional es miembro del equipo municipal de especialistas en Educación. Participaron 62 psicólogos que actúan en la educación primaria, secundaria y en la educación para jóvenes y adultos (EJA), y que respondieron a un cuestionario en línea con preguntas abiertas y de opción múltiple sobre datos sociodemográficos, de formación y de actuación profesional. Se realizó un análisis cualitativo según sus objetivos e ítems, o sea: perfil sociodemográfico, formación académica, actuación en Psicología Escolar, en otros campos/áreas de la Psicología o en equipo de especialistas. La edad mediana de los profesionales es de 46-47 años, y solo uno es del sexo masculino. El tiempo de actuación en el área varía entre 1 y 36 años, y la mayoría de los encuestados no tiene formación inicial y posgrado en el campo de la Psicología Escolar. Parte de los equipos que trabajan en las escuelas está incompleta, y existe una variabilidad en los días y horarios de reuniones. Se observó que la formación de los psicólogos escolares tiene repercusiones en la actuación con el equipo multidisciplinario y en la importancia de intervenciones basadas en la perspectiva crítica y psicosocial en Psicología Escolar. Además, conocer su perfil sociodemográfico y formativo posibilita obtener un cuadro actualizado sobre el grupo investigado, además de crear estrategias de intervención que potencialicen la actuación junto al equipo de especialistas y a los demás sectores de la escuela.(AU)

Assessment of Moral Development Among Undergraduate Pharmacy Students and Alumni.

Objective. This study's principal aim was to assess the moral development of undergraduate pharmacy students and alumni at a university in Jordan.Methods. Using the Professional Ethics in Pharmacy (PEP) test, the moral reasoning of 512 pharmacy students and alumni was assessed in a cross-sectional design. The main assessment measure was the Principled Morality Score, which reflects an individual's level of moral judgment development and is given as a percentage, where higher values indicate greater moral development.Results. The response rate was 49%. The median Principled Morality Score was 16.7, with no significant differences observed across all five cohorts. No significant differences in median Principled Morality Scores were found between men and women (16.7 vs 20, respectively). Also, no significant differences in median Principled Morality scores were observed between students who had completed the ethics course versus those who had not completed the ethics course at the time of data collection (median Principled Morality Score 20 vs 16.7, respectively). No trends in median Principled Morality Scores were observed.Conclusion. In this study, the professional moral reasoning of prospective pharmacists was lower than expected. A further longitudinal study of the cohort, which attempts to correlate moral development with age, sex, education level, and moral education strategy, is warranted.

Links between justice sensitivity and moral reasoning, moral emotions, and moral identity in middle childhood.

Associations between moral-related traits, such as justice sensitivity (JS), the tendency to negatively respond to injustice, and moral development are largely unknown. From May to December 2018, 1329 5- to 12-year-olds (M = 8.05, SD = 1.02; 51.2% girls, 1.3% transgender and gender-nonconforming) from Germany rated their JS, moral reasoning, emotions, and identity; parents and teachers rated children's theory of mind (ToM) and empathy. Victim JS (caring for own justice) predicted more attributions of positive emotions to norm transgressors in structural equation models (ß = .295). Altruistic JS (caring for other's justice) predicted less attributions of positive emotions (ß = -.343) and a stronger moral identity (ß = .392) unless ToM was considered. Particularly altruistic JS showed associations with advanced moral development. Hence, moral-related traits deserve more attention by moral-development research.

Juzgamiento de justicia de cotas en la universidad y su relación con el desarrollo moral / Julgamento de justiça de cotas na universidade e sua relação com o desenvolvimento moral / Judgment of justice of quotas in the university and its relation with the moral development

O objetivo do estudo é investigar a relação entre o julgamento da justiça de cotas e o nível de competência moral de estudantes e professores. Participaram da pesquisa 317 universitários e 15 docentes de um curso base para engenharias de uma Universidade Federal. Para coleta de dados foi utilizado um questionário estruturado composto por um dilema sobre cotas e oito argumentos relacionados à justiça e oito à injustiça das cotas. Aplicamos ainda o Teste de Competência Moral (MCT_xt), que considera aspectos afetivos e cognitivos do julgamento e remete ao escore de competência - C. Os resultados indicaram o baixo índice C dos participantes, conflito de interesse no julgamento da justiça das cotas e a questão racial como principal fator de discordância. Demonstraram ainda que entre os alunos não cotistas, quanto maior o índice C, mais consideravam as cotas injustas e entre os cotistas, quanto menor o escore C, maior a escolha pela justiça. Para julgamentos pautados na justiça por equidade, como no caso das ações afirmativas, seriam necessários níveis superiores de desenvolvimento moral. A educação tem um papel essencial no desenvolvimento da competência moral dos estudantes e em consequência, na promoção da sua participação na vida social, cívica e profissional.

El objetivo del estudio es investigar la relación entre el juzgamiento de la justicia de cotas y el nivel de competencia moral de estudiantes y profesores. Participaron de la investigación 317 universitarios y 15 docentes de un curso base para ingenieros de una Universidad Federal. Para recolecta de datos se ha utilizado un cuestionario estructurado compuesto por un dilema sobre cotas y ocho argumentos relacionados a la justicia y ocho a la injusticia de las cotas. Aplicamos aún la prueba de Competencia Moral (MCT_xt), que considera aspectos afectivos y cognitivos del juzgamiento y remete al escore de competencia - C. Los resultados indicaron el bajo índice C de los participantes, conflicto de interés en el juzgamiento de la justicia de las cotas y la cuestión racial como principal factor de discordancia. Demostraron aún que, entre los alumnos no cotizantes, cuanto mayor el índice C, más consideraban las cotas injustas y entre los cotizantes, cuanto menor el escore C, mayor la escoja por la justicia. Para juzgamientos pautados en la justicia por equidad, como en el caso de las acciones afirmativas, serían necesarios niveles superiores de desarrollo moral. La educación tiene un papel esencial en el desarrollo de la competencia moral de los estudiantes y, en consecuencia, en la promoción de su participación en la vida social, cívica y profesional.

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the fairness of quota judgment and the level of moral competency of students and professors. This work was conducted with 317 college students and 15 professors from a base course for engineering at a Public University. We use a structured questionnaire to collect data, composed of a dilemma of quotas and eight arguments related to justice and eight to injustice of quotas. We still apply the Moral Competence Test (MCT_xt), which considers affective and cognitive aspects of the judgment and gives rise to score - C. The results indicated the low C index of the participants, conflict of interest in the judgment of the fairness of quota and the racial issue as the main disagreement factor. Among non-quota students, the higher the C index, the more they considered quotas like unfairness and among quota students, the lower the C score, the greater the choice for fairness. For judgments based on equity, as in the case of affirmative actions, higher levels of moral development would be necessary. Education has an essential role in developing students' moral competence and, consequently, in promoting their participation in social, civic and professional life.

Desarrollo moral: Tres comprensiones / Moral development: Three understandings

Este artículo de reflexión presenta teóricamente las comprensiones del desarrollo moral estructuralista, pluralista y del instinto moral, con base en los criterios de indagación fáctica de la moralidad, a partir de las concepciones basadas en la justicia, en la cultura y en el instinto. Para lo cual, se realiza un recorrido teórico y conceptual, presentando diferentes investigaciones y trabajos en este campo de estudio. Como conclusión se afirma la necesidad de comprender lo moral como un fenómeno complejo que reviste diferentes marcos de sentido e interpretación, dando énfasis al carácter universal del fenómeno.

This article of reflection theoretically presents the comprehensions of the structuralist, pluralistic moral development and the moral instinct, based on the criteria of factual investigation of morality, based on conceptions based on justice, culture and instinct. For which, a theoretical and conceptual journey is made, presenting different investigations and works in this field of study. In conclusion, the need to understand the moral as a complex phenomenon that has different frames of meaning and interpretation, emphasizing the universal nature of the phenomenon is affirmed

That's not fair: Children's neural computations of fairness and their impact on resource allocation behaviors and judgments.

The ability to distinguish between mere equality in resource distributions and fairness based on a broader range of contextual factors is of paramount importance in social decision making and is a critical component of morality. Children's developmental shift from viewing inequality as a dichotomous moral issue toward a more nuanced understanding of partial inequality has been well documented across middle childhood and is attributed to a host of potential theoretical underpinnings, including developing number concept, increased regard for one's social status, and a maturing concept of fairness. The current study examined the electrophysiological markers associated with children's (N = 83; 4 to 8 years of age) third-party evaluations of equal, slightly unequal, and extremely unequal resource distributions, documenting the timing of fairness considerations. It further explored the link between individual differences in these neural computations and children's allocation behaviors and judgments. Event-related potentials demonstrated an early differentiation between equality and any type of inequality reflected by a medial frontal negativity. Later (after 500 ms), extreme inequality was discriminated from equality and slight inequality. Differences in later waveforms predicted sharing and third-party contextual resource distributions, accounting for wealth and merit. These results illuminate the multifaceted nature of developing neural computations of fairness and illustrate the value of a multiple levels of analysis approach in contributing theoretical clarity toward the developmental science of moral cognition and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Using a virtue ethics lens to develop a socially accountable community placement programme for medical students.

BACKGROUND: Community-based education (CBE) involves educating the head (cognitive), heart (affective), and the hand (practical) by utilizing tools that enable us to broaden and interrogate our value systems. This article reports on the use of virtue ethics (VE) theory for understanding the principles that create, maintain and sustain a socially accountable community placement programme for undergraduate medical students. Our research questions driving this secondary analysis were; what are the goods which are internal to the successful practice of CBE in medicine, and what are the virtues that are likely to promote and sustain them? METHODS: We conducted a secondary theoretically informed thematic analysis of the primary data based on MacIntyre's virtue ethics theory as the conceptual framework. RESULTS: Virtue ethics is an ethical approach that emphasizes the role of character and virtue in shaping moral behavior; when individuals engage in practices (such as CBE), goods internal to those practices (such as a collaborative attitude) strengthen the practices themselves, but also augment those individuals' virtues, and that of their community (such as empathy). We identified several goods that are internal to the practice of CBE and accompanying virtues as important for the development, implementation and sustainability of a socially accountable community placement programme. A service-oriented mind-set, a deep understanding of community needs, a transformed mind, and a collaborative approach emerged as goods internal to the practice of a socially accountable CBE. The virtues needed to sustain the identified internal goods included empathy and compassion, connectedness, accountability, engagement [sustained relationship], cooperation, perseverance, and willingness to be an agent of change. CONCLUSION: This study found that MacIntyre's virtue ethics theory provided a useful theoretical lens for understanding the principles that create, maintain and sustain CBE practice.

[Ethical training as a support for the moral development of students in health sciences programs: towards a teaching focused on the needs of the student as a person]. / Formación ética como soporte del desarrollo moral del alumno de carreras de ciencias de la salud: hacia una enseñanza centrada en las necesidades del estudiante como persona.

Based on the epidemiological surveys on mental health applied to Health Science students of the School of Medicine (Medicine, Nursing, Obstetrics, Nutrition, and Medical Technology) of Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, the author postulates that there are two ways to understand the teaching needs of ethics: 1) as a curricular strategy, with theoretical information through specific courses; and, 2) as a support to the moral development of the personality with diverse innovative methods. Based on the results of the surveys mentioned, which show lifetime prevalence of suicide attempts and dissocial behaviors greater than in the general population, it is proposed that such teaching shall be planned for two groups of students with different needs: 1) those without a mental health pathology and who can benefit from the regular curricular strategy; and, 2) those who, with mental health problems and indicators of difficulties in their social behavior, shall also be helped with techniques aimed at offering them support in their moral development. And that this educational challenge must be the responsibility of the university of the 21st century, under the question: What does our country need, health professionals who know ethics or who behave ethically?

Tomando como base las encuestas epidemiológicas sobre salud mental aplicadas a estudiantes de las Ciencias de la Salud de la Facultad de Medicina (Medicina, Enfermería, Obstetricia, Nutrición y Tecnología Médica) de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, el autor postula que existen dos formas de entender las necesidades de enseñanza de la ética: 1) Como estrategia curricular, con información teórica a través de cursos específicos; y, 2) Como soporte al desarrollo moral de la personalidad con diversas metódicas innovadoras. Apoyándose en los resultados de las encuestas citadas, que evidencian prevalencias de vida de intento suicida y conductas disociales mayores que en población general, se plantea que tal enseñanza debe planificarse para dos grupos de alumnos con diferentes necesidades: 1) Aquellos que sin patología de salud mental pueden beneficiarse con la estrategia curricular regular; y, 2) Aquellos que, presentando problemas de salud mental e indicadores de dificultades en su conducta social, deben, además, ser ayudados con técnicas orientadas a ofrecerles apoyo en su desarrollo moral. Y que este reto educativo debe ser responsabilidad de la universidad del siglo XXI, bajo la pregunta de ¿qué necesita nuestro país, profesionales de la salud que sepan ética o que se comporten éticamente?

Formación ética como soporte del desarrollo moral del alumno de carreras de ciencias de la salud: hacia una enseñanza centrada en las necesidades del estudiante como persona / Ethical training as a support for the moral development of students in health sciences programs: towards a teaching focused on the needs of the student as a person

Tomando como base las encuestas epidemiológicas sobre salud mental aplicadas a estudiantes de las Ciencias de la Salud de la Facultad de Medicina (Medicina, Enfermería, Obstetricia, Nutrición y Tecnología Médica) de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, el autor postula que existen dos formas de entender las necesidades de enseñanza de la ética: 1) Como estrategia curricular, con información teórica a través de cursos específicos; y, 2) Como soporte al desarrollo moral de la personalidad con diversas metódicas innovadoras. Apoyándose en los resultados de las encuestas citadas, que evidencian prevalencias de vida de intento suicida y conductas disociales mayores que en población general, se plantea que tal enseñanza debe planificarse para dos grupos de alumnos con diferentes necesidades: 1) Aquellos que sin patología de salud mental pueden beneficiarse con la estrategia curricular regular; y, 2) Aquellos que, presentando problemas de salud mental e indicadores de dificultades en su conducta social, deben, además, ser ayudados con técnicas orientadas a ofrecerles apoyo en su desarrollo moral. Y que este reto educativo debe ser responsabilidad de la universidad del siglo XXI, bajo la pregunta de ¿qué necesita nuestro país, profesionales de la salud que sepan ética o que se comporten éticamente?.

Based on the epidemiological surveys on mental health applied to Health Science students of the School of Medicine (Medicine, Nursing, Obstetrics, Nutrition, and Medical Technology) of Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, the author postulates that there are two ways to understand the teaching needs of ethics: 1) as a curricular strategy, with theoretical information through specific courses; and, 2) as a support to the moral development of the personality with diverse innovative methods. Based on the results of the surveys mentioned, which show lifetime prevalence of suicide attempts and dissocial behaviors greater than in the general population, it is proposed that such teaching shall be planned for two groups of students with different needs: 1) those without a mental health pathology and who can benefit from the regular curricular strategy; and, 2) those who, with mental health problems and indicators of difficulties in their social behavior, shall also be helped with techniques aimed at offering them support in their moral development. And that this educational challenge must be the responsibility of the university of the 21st century, under the question: What does our country need, health professionals who know ethics or who behave ethically?.

Effort or outcome? Children's meritorious decisions.

How individuals determine what is fair and just when allocating resources is a fundamental aspect of moral development. Decisions about fairness involve considerations such as merit, which includes effort (one's own exertion to achieve a goal) and outcome (one's product). Previous research has described merit in terms of both effort and outcome (e.g., a meritorious individual is both hard-working and productive). Crucially, no research has documented whether children give priority to being hard-working (high effort) or to being productive (high outcome or product) when allocating resources. This gap in the literature obfuscates two constructs that reflect how individuals allocate resources. The current study examined this process by which children (3- to 10-year-olds, N = 100; Mage = 7.27 years, SD = 2.39) weighed these two different aspects of merit in their fairness decisions in several situations where levels of effort and outcome were varied. When there was a discrepancy between effort and outcome, children increasingly prioritized effort over outcome with age and allocated more resources to hard-working peers than to productive peers. Effort and outcome were also examined. In situations where only effort varied (i.e., outcome was controlled), with age children were more likely to incorporate effort into their fairness decisions; however, in situations where only outcome varied (i.e., effort was controlled), with age children were less likely to incorporate effort into their fairness decisions. Taken together, the findings suggest that as children get older, they increasingly focus on effort of individuals rather than on their productivity when distributing resources.

Lawrence Kohlberg y la psicología moral: trayectoria y variaciones conceptuales / Lawrence Kohlberg and moral psychology: trajectory and conceptual variations

Lawrence Kohlberg fue un pionero en el estudio del desarrollo del juicio moral, de las acciones de responsabilidad, de las apreciaciones de justicia, de la solidaridad y del compromiso con los otros. Su trayectoria, sin embargo, estuvo marcada por múltiples giros y reconceptualizaciones. En este artículo presentamos algunas de estas variaciones asociadas a la descripción y caracterización de los estadios y comprensiones de lo moral en los sujetos en desarrollo. Se abordará el cambio en la caracterización de los estadios del desarrollo desde sus formulaciones iniciales propuestas en su tesis doctoral y su trabajo de la década de los 60s (época marcada por una clara influencia de la perspectiva piagetiana), hasta su última conceptualización expuesta en la posteridad de su obra y donde se retoman planteamientos de las teorías del ciclo vital y teorías del desarrollo no piagetianas. Se concluye que, a pesar de las múltiples críticas y conflictos que se señalaron a su teoría, es importante resaltar como su formulación lucha por dar cuenta de una tensión permanente en los abordajes psicológicos que tienen que ver con el desarrollo moral, por abordar algunas de las tensiones entre los abordajes estructuralistas y los abordajes hermenéuticos y por ofrecer una formulación novedosa frente a la tradicional discusión entre formas y contenidos. Se cierra el texto afirmando que la obra de este autor determinó los diferentes caminos que siguieron los posteriores desarrollos de la psicología moral y fue generadora de ideas y de vías variadas que sus continuadores han recorrido en las décadas más recientes

Lawrence Kohlberg was a pioneer in the study of the development of moral judgment, actions of responsibility, appreciation of justice, solidarity, and commitment to others. His career, however, was marked by multiple turns and reconceptualizations. In the current article, we present some of these variations associated with the description and characterization of the stages and understandings of morality in developing subjects. We characterize first the initial formulations of the stages of moral development, proposed in his doctoral thesis, and his work from the 60s (a period marked by an evident influence of the Piagetian perspective). Last, we address his conceptualization exposed in the posterity of his work, where he resumed approaches to life cycle theories and non-Piagetian development theories. We conclude that, despite the multiple criticisms and conflicts, his formulation struggles with three points: to account for a permanent tension in the psychological approaches that are interested in moral development, to address some of the tensions between structuralist and hermeneutical approaches, and to provide a novel formulation against the traditional discussion between forms and contents. We close, stating that Kohlberg's work determined the different paths that followed the subsequent developments of moral psychology and was a generator of ideas and varied ways that his followers have traveled in recent decades

The role of personal values in children's costly sharing and non-costly giving.

This study examined whether children's values, global and abstract motivations serving as guiding principles, are organized similarly to those of adults, whether values can predict individual differences in children's sharing behaviors, and whether the normative nature of the situation influences the expression of these individual differences. Children (N=243, ages 5-12years) participated in a values ranking task as part of a visit to a science museum. The majority of children (n=150) also participated in a task examining costly sharing (i.e., sharing that results in giving up part of one's own resources) and non-costly giving (i.e., giving that does not influence one's own share). Starting from 5years of age, children showed a structure of values similar to that of adolescents and adults, specifically contrasting preferences for opposing values (i.e., self-transcendence with self-enhancement and openness to change with conservation). Importance given to self-transcendence values related positively to costly sharing but not to non-costly giving, indicating that in situations where it is more normative to share, individual differences in values are less expressed in children's actual sharing. In addition, children's sex and age moderated the relation between values and behavior. Children's values are an important aspect of their developing personalities. Taking them into consideration can greatly promote the research of prosocial and normative development as well as our understanding of individual differences in children's behavior.

Normative expectations about fairness: The development of a charity norm in preschoolers.

This study investigated preschool children's normative expectations about the fair distribution of resources. We examined whether preschool children have a norm of charity, that is, a norm to give more to poor individuals than to wealthy individuals. To this end, we presented 3- to 6-year-olds (N=81) with two different resource allocation situations. In one situation, an agent complied with a norm of charity by allocating more resources to a poor recipient than to a rich recipient. In the other situation, a different agent violated the norm by allocating more resources to a wealthy recipient. We assessed (a) children's verbal protest and affirmation during the resource allocation situations, (b) their punishing and rewarding behavior toward the agents, and (c) their evaluations of the agents' behavior. The results show that older (5- and 6-year-old) preschool children enforced norm-compliant behavior and protested against the norm violation of the protagonist who gave more items to the wealthy recipient, but this was not the case in younger preschool children. These findings demonstrate that older preschool children consider charity as a norm and enforce this norm toward third parties.

Young children's inclusion decisions in moral and social-conventional group norm contexts.

Being a member of a peer group involves making decisions about whom to include in or exclude from the group. Sometimes these decisions are related to whether members of the group support or challenge the norms of the group. To examine how young children weigh concerns for group norms and group membership in both moral and social-conventional norm contexts, children (3- to 6-year-olds; N=73) were asked to decide between including an ingroup member who challenged the group's norm or an outgroup member who supported the norm. Groups held either moral (equal or unequal resource allocation) or social-conventional (traditional or nontraditional) norms. In the moral contexts, children were more likely to include the peer who advocated for the moral concern for equality regardless of the peer's group membership or their group's specific norm. In the social-conventional contexts, however, children were more likely to include the peer who advocated for the conventional concern for maintaining traditions but only at the group-specific level. Furthermore, with age children increasingly based their inclusion decisions on normative concerns, rather than on group membership concerns, and differed in their inclusion decisions for ingroups and outgroups. Finally, children reasoned about their decisions by referencing concerns for fairness, group norms, and group membership, suggesting that preschool children weigh multiple concerns when deciding whom to include in their groups. Overall, the current study revealed differences in how preschool children weigh moral and social-conventional concerns in intergroup contexts.

Índice C en médicos de dos centros hospitalarios chilenos según el test de competencia moral de Lind / Assessment of moral competence of physicians

Background: Moral competence (MC) in physicians is fundamental, given the increasing complexity of medicine. The "Moral Competence Test" (MCT © Lind) evaluates this feature and its indicator is the C Index (CI). Aim: To explore moral competence and its associated factors among physicians working in Chile. Material and Methods: The MCT was answered by 236 physicians from two medical centers who voluntarily participated in the study. Besides the test, participants completed an encrypted form giving information about gender, years in practice and post-graduate studies. Results: The average CI value of the participants was 20,9. Post-graduate studies had a significant positive influence on CI. There was a significant decrease in CI, between 16 and 20 years of professional exercise. Gender and the area of post-graduate studies did not have a significant influence. Conclusions: The studied physicians showed a wide range of CI which was positively affected by the postgraduate studies performed. The years of professional practice had a negative influence. Expanding training opportunities during professional practice could have a positive effect on CM as measured by CI.

Moral development in context: Associations of neighborhood and maternal discipline with preschoolers' moral judgments.

Associations among moral judgments, neighborhood risk, and maternal discipline were examined in 118 socioeconomically diverse preschoolers (Mage = 41.84 months, SD = 1.42). Children rated the severity and punishment deserved for 6 prototypical moral transgressions entailing physical and psychological harm and unfairness. They also evaluated 3 criteria for assessing maturity in moral judgments: whether acts were considered wrong regardless of rules and wrong independent of authority, as well as whether moral rules were considered unacceptable to alter (collectively called criterion judgments). Mothers reported on their socioeconomic status, neighborhood characteristics and risk, and consistency of discipline; harsh maternal discipline was observed during a mother-child clean-up task. Structural equation modeling indicated that greater neighborhood risk was associated with less mature criterion judgments and ratings that transgressions were less serious and less deserving of punishment, particularly for children who were disciplined less harshly. Although harsh maternal discipline was associated with children's ratings of moral transgressions as more serious and deserving of punishment, this effect for severity judgments was more pronounced when mothers were inconsistent versus consistent in applying harsh discipline. Preschoolers who received consistent harsh discipline had less sophisticated moral criterion judgments than their less consistently or harshly disciplined peers. Results demonstrate the importance of social contexts in preschoolers' developing moral judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record

Justice and care: decision making by medical school student promotions committees.

CONTEXT: The function of medical school entities that determine student advancement or dismissal has gone largely unexplored. The decision making of 'academic progress' or student promotions committees is examined using a theoretical framework contrasting ethics of justice and care, with roots in the moral development work of theorists Kohlberg and Gilligan. OBJECTIVES: To ascertain promotions committee members' conceptualisation of the role of their committee, ethical orientations used in member decision making, and student characteristics most influential in that decision making. METHODS: An electronic survey was distributed to voting members of promotions committees at 143 accredited allopathic medical schools in the USA. Descriptive statistics were calculated and data were analysed by gender, role, institution type and class size. RESULTS: Respondents included 241 voting members of promotions committees at 55 medical schools. Respondents endorsed various promotions committee roles, including acting in the best interest of learners' future patients and graduating highly qualified learners. Implementing policy was assigned lower importance. The overall pattern of responses did not indicate a predominant orientation toward an ethic of justice or care. Respondents indicated that committees have discretion to take individual student characteristics into consideration during deliberations, and that they do so in practice. Among the student characteristics with the greatest influence on decision making, professionalism and academic performance were paramount. Eighty-five per cent of participants indicated that they received no training. CONCLUSIONS: Promotions committee members do not regard orientations of justice and care as being mutually exclusive and endorse an array of statements regarding the committee's purpose that may conflict with one another. The considerable variance in the influence of student characteristics and the general absence of committee member training indicate a need for clear delineation of the medical profession's priorities in terms of justice and care, and of the specific student characteristics that should factor into deliberations.